Introduction

Background

Due to the extreme scarcity of publicly accessible information, direct analysis of North Korea’s scientific and technological capabilities, as well as its patterns of international collaboration, remains highly challenging. As an alternative, bibliometric analyses of North Korean scientific publications have served as a valuable means of gaining insight into these otherwise opaque domains.

Jeong and Huh [1] noted a rise in domestic North Korean research output around 2018, identifying 105 articles, with physics and mathematics emerging as the most prominent fields. Yoon [2] further classified such publications into three categories: those authored solely by North Korean researchers, multi-institutional collaborations within North Korea, and joint publications with foreign researchers. This classification enabled a more nuanced analysis of publication trends, research areas, and co-authorship networks.

Objectives

Building on these earlier efforts, the present study extends the dataset through 2024 using the Scopus database and compares trends in publication volume and institutional affiliation across two distinct groups: (1) exclusively domestic North Korean researchers and (2) international collaborative teams involving foreign co-authors.

Whereas previous studies have largely attributed the increase in North Korea’s international publications to domestic policy initiatives, such as Kim Jong Un’s push to become a “powerhouse of science and technology” and the introduction of the Five-Year Economic Development Plan [3], this study offers a new perspective. It argues that North Korea’s academic activity has also been shaped by significant external developments in the late 2010s, including intensified international sanctions and the COVID-19 pandemic in the 2020s.

Methods

Ethics statement

This study did not involve human participants; therefore, institutional review board approval and informed consent were not required.

Study design and setting

This study conducted a bibliometric analysis of research articles authored by North Korean researchers and indexed in the Scopus database between 1976 and 2024, based on a comprehensive search performed on June 15, 2025.

Data sources/measurement

Prior studies have documented recurring errors in Scopus search results, including the misclassification of South Korean authors as affiliated with “North Korea” and the incorrect assignment of North Korean affiliations to South Korean institutions [4]. Moreover, affiliation data often contain inconsistencies or inaccuracies [5].

To address these limitations, we adapted the methodology proposed by Choi and Noh [6], using a refined search strategy based on North Korean locality names while excluding records with erroneous attributions. We also developed a new procedure to detect cases in which the affiliation country field was missing. Specifically, “Korea” was excluded from the country field to avoid misclassification, and results were filtered manually to remove false positives.

Affiliation data for each author were extracted from Scopus and processed in Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp). Institutional names were standardized to the highest organizational level. For example, if an author was affiliated with “Research Institute C” within “College B” at “University A,” the affiliation was recorded as “University A.” When necessary, affiliations were cross verified against the full text of the article and corrected accordingly. For the network analysis of international collaboration, nodes and edges were generated using the igraph package in R ver. 4.5.1 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing) and visualized with VOSviewer ver. 1.6.20 (Centre for Science and Technology Studies, Leiden University).

Although an author’s institutional affiliation does not necessarily indicate their nationality, for analytical simplicity, we refer to researchers affiliated with institutions in North Korea or China as “North Korean” or “Chinese” researchers, respectively.

This study builds upon the earlier work by Choi and Noh [6], while refining and updating the data-cleaning methodology. Unlike the previous study, articles with many authors (e.g., n=83) were retained in the analysis. In cases where such articles represented the consolidation of multiple research subgroups, the analysis was restricted to subgroups that included North Korean researchers. Authors affiliated with international nongovernmental organizations or institutions were excluded from the analysis if their affiliation with a research institution could not be clearly identified.

Statistical analysis

Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Social network analysis was employed to assess patterns of institutional collaboration, including the calculation of centrality measures to evaluate the prominence of research institutions within international co-authorship networks.

Results

This study focuses on research articles indexed in Scopus that were either conducted exclusively within North Korea or produced through international collaboration. For clarity, articles authored solely by researchers affiliated with North Korean institutions are referred to as “domestic research,” while those co-authored with researchers affiliated with foreign institutions are designated as “international research.”

Trends in publication volume

A total of 1,344 domestic and 1,210 international research articles published between 1976 and 2024 were analyzed (Fig. 1 and Suppl. 1). Domestic research output began to rise meaningfully after reaching double digits in 2014. Articles published between 2015 and 2019 account for 20.5% of all domestic publications over the entire period, while those from 2020 to 2024 alone comprise 78.1% (Suppl. 2).

Notably, 98.6% of all North Korean domestic research articles were published in the past decade. This finding aligns with previous studies that identified 2014 as a turning point in domestic research output in both the Web of Science and Scopus [2,6]. The present analysis further demonstrates sustained growth through the late 2010s and early 2020s. Since 2021, the annual number of domestic publications has consistently reached or exceeded 200.

A comparison by period shows diverging trajectories between domestic and international research in North Korea (Fig. 2 and Suppl. 2). In the late 2010s, international research (405 articles, 59.5%) outnumbered domestic output (276 articles, 40.5%). However, by the early 2020s, this pattern had reversed: domestic research rose sharply to 1,049 articles (70.1%), while international collaborations accounted for only 447 articles (29.9%).

This shift is evident not only in absolute numbers but also in relative proportions. Between 2010 and 2014, domestic research accounted for just 5.3% of international journal publications by North Korean researchers, compared to 94.7% for international collaborations (Suppl. 2). However, international research has shown stagnating growth since around 2020. Although both categories exceeded 100 annual publications for the first time in 2019, domestic research has continued to outpace international research through 2024 (Fig. 1 and Suppl. 1).

Institutional affiliations in domestic research

We examined the institutional affiliations of North Korean researchers who contributed domestic research articles to international journals (Fig. 3 and Suppl. 3). A previous study covering the period from 1988 to 2016 identified Kim Il Sung University (KISU), the State Academy of Sciences (SAS), Kim Chaek University of Technology (KCUT), and the University of Science (UoS) as the leading institutions by publication volume in Web of Science–indexed journals [1]. Our updated analysis of Scopus-indexed publications from 1976 to 2024 confirms a similar pattern: KISU accounts for 54.8% of domestic research output, followed by KCUT (20.5%), SAS (9.0%), and UoS (6.6%). The combined share of authors affiliated with KISU and KCUT consistently exceeded 70% across the three most recent 5-year periods, accounting for 77.8% in 2010–2014, 75.3% in 2015–2019, and 75.6% in 2020–2024 (Fig. 3 and Suppl. 3). This trend indicates a growing concentration of North Korean researchers within these two institutions publishing in international journals.

Institutional collaboration in domestic research

Institutional collaboration within domestic research is visualized in Fig. 4. Contrary to earlier findings suggesting limited interinstitutional cooperation within North Korea [7], the 2020s show a gradual expansion of such collaboration. Between 2015 and 2019, 47 domestic articles (17.0%) involved multiple North Korean institutions; this figure increased to 258 articles (24.6%) between 2020 and 2024 (Fig. 4 and Suppl. 4). These results highlight a modest but growing trend of institutional collaboration within the North Korean research ecosystem.

International collaboration network by country

This study visualizes the network of countries in which affiliated institutions are located, distinguishing between 1976–2019 and 2020–2024 (Fig. 5). Fig. 5A (1976–2019) contains a larger number of nodes and exhibits weakly clustered structures, whereas Fig. 5B (2020–2024) exhibits a sharp decline in the number of nodes and a more fragmented pattern overall.

Centrality analysis reveals that, as in the 1976–2019 period, China, Germany, and the United States continued to rank highest in 2020–2024. However, the number of collaborating countries declined from 35 to 17. Notably, countries such as Macao (n=10), Uganda (n=6), and the United Kingdom (n=6), which had shown relatively high degree centrality in the earlier period, recorded no co-authored publications with North Korean institutions in 2020–2024. Newly emerging partners during this period included Greece, Cameroon, and Mongolia (Suppl. 5).

Fig. 6 illustrates the international research collaboration networks before and after 2020. A comparison of degree centrality among international research institutions indicates that the number of North Korean institutions ranked among the top 30 increased from 7 in 1976–2019 to 12 in 2020–2024, nearly doubling their representation. KISU, KCUT, SAS, and UoS consistently recorded the highest centrality scores among domestic institutions in both periods. Among foreign institutions, Northeast Forestry University rose sharply from 44th place prior to 2020 to 1st place in the subsequent period. In contrast, Wuhan University experienced a significant decline, dropping from 5th to 21th place. During 1976–2019, Wuhan University was linked to five North Korean institutions, including KISU, UoS, Kim Hyong Jik Normal University, Wonsan Agricultural University, and Hamhung University of Chemical Industry. In 2020–2024, however, its connections were limited to two: KISU and Kim Hyong Jik Normal University (Suppl. 6).

Leadership in international collaborations

To assess leadership roles in international collaborations, we identified the lead country for each co-authored article based on the number of author affiliations. A country was designated as the lead if its researchers accounted for more than half of the total co-authors. Between 2010 and 2014, North Korea participated in 234 internationally co-authored publications but led only 13 of them. This imbalance suggests that the benefits of collaboration may be asymmetrically distributed, with foreign researchers likely deriving less benefit, highlighting a significant gap in research capacity between North Korea and its international partners. By contrast, during the 2020–2024 period, North Korea participated in 447 such collaborations and led 96, representing a 7.4-fold increase (Suppl. 7). Fig. 7 illustrates the shares of lead countries over time (detailed data are provided in Suppl. 7). Prior to 2005, North Korean researchers did not lead any international collaborations, while Chinese researchers led 93.8%. Over time, however, this gap has narrowed. In the 2020–2024 period, North Korean researchers led 21.5% of internationally co-authored articles, compared to 75.8% led by Chinese researchers. This trend indicates a gradual shift in leadership dynamics.

Discussion

Key results

This study confirms a sharp increase in domestic research output by North Korean researchers since 2014, alongside a stagnation in international research activity beginning in the early 2020s (Fig. 1 and Suppl. 1). The top four North Korean institutions contributing to domestic research were identified as KISU, KCUT, STAAS, and UoS, with the combined share of KISU and KCUT exceeding 50% in recent years (Fig. 3 and Suppl. 3). Interinstitutional collaboration within North Korea has also risen steadily since 2020 (Fig. 4 and Suppl. 4), suggesting the gradual development of a modest but expanding domestic research network. Network analysis further reveals a reduction in the number of countries hosting North Korea’s international research partners during the 2020s, accompanied by a diversification of domestic institutions exhibiting high centrality within the collaboration network (Suppl. 6).

Interpretation/comparison with previous studies

From January 2020 to August 2023, North Korea enforced the world’s longest border closure in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, lasting 3 years and 7 months. This prolonged isolation disrupted the movement of people and materials, likely prompting a shift toward domestic research. Notably, following the January 2020 lockdown of Wuhan, China (the initial epicenter of the COVID-19 outbreak), research collaboration between North Korea and Wuhan University, a long-standing partner, has shown signs of decline (Suppl. 6).

Further compounding North Korea’s isolation, the United Nations Security Council imposed strengthened sanctions in 2016, including a ban on nuclear-related engineering education and training. These sanctions, in contrast to global trends of expanding research networks, have constrained North Korea’s capacity to diversify international collaborations [8].

Under such conditions, it remains difficult for North Korean researchers to engage in research partnerships beyond China, highlighting the impact of geopolitical constraints on academic exchange. In response, North Korea has seemingly reinforced its ideological emphasis on Juche (self-reliance) and has expanded domestic research initiatives accordingly.

China has naturally emerged as North Korea’s primary research partner due to geographic proximity, ideological alignment, and similar institutional structures (such as the party-state model), which facilitate deeper and more continuous engagement. Prior studies have shown that over half of North Korea’s internationally co-authored publications (55.3%) involved Chinese collaborators [1], a trend reaffirmed by our findings. This sustained collaboration appears to reflect both a pragmatic adaptation to North Korea’s restricted international environment and China’s rising global scientific influence.

Despite ongoing challenges, North Korean researchers’ participation in international projects has resulted in a growing number of instances in which they assume leadership roles in joint publications (Fig. 7 and Suppl. 7), suggesting a gradual enhancement of both research capacity and confidence. Notably, an analysis of degree and betweenness centrality in the 2020s reveals a significant increase in the representation of North Korean institutions among the top 30. This trend indicates that, despite external constraints, North Korea has actively engaged with a diverse array of international partners and has focused on strengthening its own research capacity by building collaborative networks (Suppl. 6).

Limitations

This study faced several methodological limitations. First, determining author nationality was sometimes challenging. In joint publications with Chinese institutions, North Korean names were occasionally romanized according to Chinese pinyin conventions (e.g., “Kim Jong-chol” rendered as “Jin Zheng-Zhe”), necessitating manual verification through full-text review. For example, Manhiu Chou (于滿喜), an ethnic Korean Chinese individual affiliated with KISU and presumed to be a distance-learning graduate student based in China, was excluded from international collaboration statistics. These examples underscore the inherent limitations of relying on external contextual information to interpret affiliation data.

Conclusions

Although international research output has stagnated in recent years, this trend may shift as pandemic-related restrictions ease and opportunities for cross-border collaboration resume. In the meantime, domestic research is likely to maintain its upward trajectory, reflecting ongoing improvements in both infrastructure and human capital. North Korea’s research system appears to be undergoing a gradual transformation shaped by a combination of internal adaptation, external constraints, and strategic partnerships, particularly with China.

Notes

Conflict of interest

No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for this article.

Acknowledgments

The authors thank Jaehyeong Park, Yujin Lee, Jiwon Kim, Mingyeong Cha, Joowon Woo, Geon Hui Lim, and Seong-a Park at Dongguk University for their help in collecting data for this article.

Data availability

Dataset files are available from the Harvard Dataverse at https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/NWP9EJ.

Dataset 1. Domestic research: Scopus data with number of references.

kcse-381-dataset-1.xlsx

Dataset 2. Domestic research: Scopus data with author and affiliation metadata.

kcse-381-dataset-2.xlsx

Dataset 3. Domestic research: Scopus data with standardized institutional affiliations (highest level).

kcse-381-dataset-3.xlsx

Dataset 4. International research: Scopus data with partner country, foreign affiliation, and number of references.

kcse-381-dataset-4.xlsx

Dataset 5. International research: Scopus data with author and affiliation metadata.

kcse-381-dataset-5.xlsx

Dataset 6. International research: Scopus data with standardized institutional affiliations (highest level).

kcse-381-dataset-6.xlsx

Supplementary materials

Fig. 1.

Number of published articles in international journals by year.

Fig. 2.

Number of publications in international journals by period.

Fig. 3.

Institutional affiliations of North Korean researchers. KISU, Kim Il Sung University; KCUT, Kim Chaek University of Technology; SAS, State Academy of Sciences; UoS, University of Science.

Fig. 4.

Proportions of institutional collaborations in domestic research.

Fig. 5.

Network visualization of country affiliations in international research collaboration. (A) Before 2020 (1976–2019). (B) After 2020 (2020–2024).

Fig. 6.

Network visualization of institutional affiliations in international research collaboration. (A) Before 2020 (1976–2019). (B) After 2020 (2020–2024).

Fig. 7.

Shares of lead countries in international research.

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Figure & Data

References

Citations

Citations to this article as recorded by  

• Nuclear science in North Korea: a case study of the Journal of Kim Il-Sung university, 1982–2024
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